A B S T R A C T
In recent years, the perception of architectural space has increasingly been examined through the interaction between sensory inputs and cognitive processes, supported by neuropsychological evidence. However, the existing body of literature remains fragmented and lacks an integrative framework capable of synthesizing dominant patterns in this field. This study employs a systematic review methodology to analyse the sensory and cognitive components influencing architectural space perception and the neuropsychological measures used to assess them. A structured search was conducted in Scopus and Web of Science, and after applying predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 44 peer-reviewed research articles were selected for analysis. Data were extracted using a standardized form and examined through thematic analysis across four main axes.
The findings indicate that sensory components of architectural perception can be organized into five major clusters—visual, auditory, tactile–thermal, olfactory/air-quality, and kinaesthetic–embodied—which systematically interact with cognitive constructs such as legibility and wayfinding, spatial complexity, meaning and identity, memory, evaluative judgment, and cognitive load. The analysis of recurring patterns across studies demonstrates that the quality of these interactions shapes key outcomes, including psychological restoration, emotion regulation, variations in cognitive performance, sense of place formation, and spatial behavioural patterns.
At the theoretical level, three dominant families—environmental and restorative psychology, phenomenology and embodiment, and cognitive neuroscience—provide explanatory foundations for understanding sensory–cognitive integration. By synthesizing dispersed findings, this review proposes an integrated conceptual framework for architectural space perception that supports the development of multisensory design, human-centred architecture, and evidence-based design strategies.
Introduction
Perception of architectural space is increasingly understood as the outcome of intertwined sensory and cognitive processes rather than a purely visual response to form and façade. Over the past two decades, advances in environmental psychology, phenomenology and cognitive neuroscience, together with new tools such as virtual reality, eye-tracking and EEG, have generated a rapidly growing but fragmented body of research on how built environments affect attention, emotion, memory, wayfinding and well-being. Despite this expansion, there is still no coherent map of which sensory and cognitive components are most frequently studied, how they are operationalised, and which theoretical and methodological frameworks underpin this work. Addressing this gap is essential for moving from scattered case studies to evidence-based, human-centred and multisensory architectural design.
Methodology
This study adopts a systematic review methodology to identify, classify and synthesise empirical research on the sensory and cognitive components of architectural space perception, with a particular focus on studies using neuropsychological and physiological measures. A structured search was conducted in the Scopus and Web of Science databases on 20 October 2025, using combinations of terms related to architectural space and built environment, spatial perception constructs (e.g. wayfinding, legibility, complexity, coherence) and neurophysiological or psychophysiological indicators (e.g. EEG, fMRI, fNIRS, eye-tracking, galvanic skin response, heart rate variability, cognitive load). No temporal restriction was imposed in order to capture the full evolution of the field.
Inclusion criteria required that studies (a) were empirical, peer-reviewed journal articles with full text available in English or Persian; (b) focused explicitly on the perception of architectural or urban spaces, whether real, simulated (e.g. VR) or represented (images, videos, renderings, models); (c) involved human participants; and (d) reported at least one sensory–cognitive outcome, measured either through validated self-report instruments or objective neurophysiological and behavioural indicators. Excluded were purely theoretical or review papers, studies on non-architectural stimuli (e.g. artworks, products, landscapes without built form), animal studies, and sources with insufficient methodological detail.
The initial search returned 19 records in Web of Science and 22,022 in Scopus. After filtering by subject area, document type, language and source type, 3,113 records remained. Titles and abstracts were screened against the inclusion criteria, leading to the selection of 44 articles for full-text review and qualitative synthesis. Data were extracted using a standardised form capturing bibliographic information, study design, sample characteristics, type of spatial stimulus, manipulations or descriptors of environmental features, sensory and cognitive measures, theoretical framing and key findings. A thematic analysis was then undertaken to organise the material into four overarching axes: sensory components, cognitive components and outcomes, theoretical approaches, and methodological strategies and instruments.
Results and discussion
The synthesis shows that sensory aspects of architectural perception can be structured into five major clusters. Visual components remain the most extensively studied and include light and illumination (natural and artificial, intensity, distribution), colour characteristics, form and geometry (height, enclosure, curvature, scale) and visual texture and materiality, alongside visual legibility and landmarking. These features are consistently linked to impressions of spaciousness, clarity, aesthetic preference, and to indicators such as gaze patterns, attention allocation and neural activation.